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(From the "Meditations." Translated by John Veitch)
DUC DE LA ROCHEFOUCAULD (Born in France in 1613, died in 1680.)
Selections from the "Maxims."
(Translated by Willis Bund and Hain Friswell)
BLAISE PASCAL (Born in 1623, died in 1662.)
Of the Prevalence of Self-Love.
(From the "Thoughts." Translated by C. Kegan Paul)
MADAME DE SÉVIGNÉ (Born in Paris in 1626, died in 1696.)
I Great News from Paris.
(From a letter dated Paris, December 15, 1670)
II An Imposing Funeral Described.
(From a letter to her daughter, dated Paris, May 6,1672)
ALAIN RENÉ LE SAGE (Born in 1668, died in 1747.)
I In the Service of Dr. Sangrado.
(From "Gil Blas." Translated by Tobias Smollett)
II As an Archbishop's Favorite.
(From "Gil Blas." Translated by Tobias Smollett)
DUC DE SAINT-SIMON (Born in 1675, died in 1755.)
I The Death of the Dauphin.
(From the "Memoirs." Translated by Bayle St. John)
II The Public Watching the King and Madame.
(From the "Memoirs." Translated by Bayle St. John)
BARON DE MONTESQUIEU (Born in 1689, died in 1755.)
I Of the Causes Which Destroyed Rome.
(From the "Grandeur and Decadence of the Romans")
II Of the Relation of Laws to Human Beings.
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(From the "Spirit of Laws." Translated by Thomas Nugent)
FRANÇOIS AROUET VOLTAIRE (Born in Paris in 1694, died in 1778.)
I Of Bacon's Greatness.
(From the "Letters on England")
II England's Regard for Men of Letters.
(From the "Letters on England")
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (Born in 1712, died in 1778.)
I Of Christ and Socrates
II Of the Management of Children.
(From the "New Héloïse")
MADAME DE STAËL (Born in 1763, died in 1817.)
Of Napoleon Bonaparte.
(From "Considerations on the French Revolution")
VISCOUNT DE CHATEAUBRIAND (Born in 1768, died in 1848.)
In an American Forest.
(From the "Historical Essay on Revolutions")
FRANÇOIS GUIZOT (Born in 1787, died in 1874.)
Shakespeare as an Example of Civilization.
(From "Shakespeare and His Times")
ALPHONSE DE LAMARTINE (Born in 1790, died in 1869.)
Of Mirabeau's Origin and Place in History.
(From Book I of the "History of the Girondists." Translated by T. Ryde)
LOUIS ADOLPH THIERS (Born in 1797, died in 1877.)
The Burning of Moscow.
(From the "History of the Consulate and the Empire")
HONORÉ DE BALZAC (Born in 1799, died in 1850.)
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I The Death of Père Goriot.
(From the concluding chapter of "Père Goriot." Translated by Helen Marriàge)
II Birotteau's Early Married Life.
(From "The Rise and Fall of César Birotteau." Translated by Helen Marriàge)
ALFRED DE VIGNY (Born in 1799, died in 1863.)
Richelieu's Way with His Master.
(From "Cinq-Mars; or, The Conspiracy under Louis XIII." Translated by William C. Hazlitt)
VICTOR HUGO (Born in France in 1802, died in 1885.)
I The Battle of Waterloo.
(From Chapter XV of "Cosette," in "Les Misérables." Translated by Lascelles Wraxall)
II The Beginnings and Expansions of Paris.
(From Book III, Chapter II, of "Notre-Dame de Paris")
ALEXANDER DUMAS (Born in 1802, died in 1870.)
The Shoulder, the Belt and the Handkerchief.
(From "The Three Musketeers")
GEORGE SAND (Born in 1804, died in 1876.)
Lélia and the Poet.
(From "Lélia")
EARLY CONTINENTAL WRITERS
354 A.D 1471 A.D.
ST. AURELIUS AUGUSTINE
Born in Numidia, Africa, in 354 A.D., died in 430; educated at Carthage; taught rhetoric at Carthage; removed
to Rome in 383; going thence to Milan in 384, where he became a friend of St. Ambrose; converted from
Manicheanism to Christianity by his mother Monica, and baptized by St. Ambrose in 387; made Bishop of
Hippo in North Africa in 395; became a champion of orthodoxy and the most celebrated of the fathers of the
Latin branch of the Church; his "Confessions" published in 397.
IMPERIAL POWER FOR GOOD AND BAD MEN[1]
Let us examine the nature of the spaciousness and continuance of empire, for which men give their gods such
great thanks; to whom also they exhibited plays (that were so filthy both in actors and the action) without any
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offense of honesty. But, first, I would make a little inquiry, seeing you can not show such estates to be anyway
happy, as are in continual wars, being still in terror, trouble, and guilt of shedding human blood, tho it be their
foes; what reason then or what wisdom shall any man show in glorying in the largeness of empire, all their joy
being but as a glass, bright and brittle, and evermore in fear and danger of breaking? To dive the deeper into
this matter, let us not give the sails of our souls to every air of human breath, nor suffer our understanding's
eye to be smoked up with the fumes of vain words, concerning kingdoms, provinces, nations, or so. No, let us
take two men, let us imagine the one to be poor, or but of a mean estate, the other potent and wealthy; but
withal, let my wealthy man take with him fears, sorrows, covetousness, suspicion, disquiet, contentions, let
these be the books for him to hold in the augmentation of his estate, and with all the increase of those cares,
together with his estate; and let my poor man take with him, sufficiency with little, love of kindred, neighbors,
friends, joyous peace, peaceful religion, soundness of body, sincereness of heart, abstinence of diet, chastity
of carriage, and security of conscience.
[Footnote 1: From "De Civitate Dei," Book IV, Chapter III, published in 426. This work, "as Englisshed" by J.
Healey, was published is 1610.]
Where should a man find any one so sottish as would make a doubt which of these to prefer in his choice?
Well, then, even as we have done with these two men, so let us do with two families, two nations, or two
kingdoms. Lay them both to the line of equity; which done, and duly considered, when it is done, here doth
vanity lie bare to the view, and there shines felicity. Wherefore it is more convenient that such as fear and
follow the law of the true God should have the swaying of such empires; not so much for themselves, their
piety and their honesty (God's admired gifts) will suffice them, both to the enjoying of true felicity in this life
and the attaining of that eternal and true felicity in the next. So that here upon earth, the rule and regality that
is given to the good man does not return him so much good as it does to those that are under this his rule and
regality. But, contrariwise, the government of the wicked harms themselves far more than their subjects, for it
gives themselves the greater liberty to exercise their lusts; but for their subjects, they have none but their own
iniquities to answer for; for what injury soever the unrighteous master does to the righteous servant, it is no
scourge for his guilt, but a trial of his virtue. And therefore he that is good is free, tho he be a slave; and he
that is evil, a slave tho he be king. Nor is he slave to one man, but that which is worst of all, unto as many
masters as he affects vices; according to the Scriptures, speaking thus hereof: "Of whatsoever a man is
overcome, to that he is in bondage."
ANICIUS BOETHIUS
Born in Rome about 475, died about 524; consul in 510 and magister officiorum in the court of Theodoric the
Goth; put to death by Theodoric without trial on the charge of treason and magic; his famous work "De
Consolatione Philosophiæ" probably written while in prison in Pavia; parts of that work translated by Alfred
the Great and Chaucer; secured much influence for the works of Aristotle by his translations and
commentaries.
THE HIGHEST HAPPINESS[2]
When Wisdom had sung this lay he ceased the song and was silent a while. Then he began to think deeply in
his mind's thought, and spoke thus: Every mortal man troubles himself with various and manifold anxieties,
and yet all desire, through various paths, to come to one end; that is, they desire, by different means, to arrive
at one happiness; that is, to know God! He is the beginning and the end of every good, and He is the highest
happiness.
[Footnote 2: From "The Consolations of Philosophy." The translation of Alfred the Great, modernized.
Boethius is not usually classed as a Roman author, altho Gibbon said of him that he was "the last Roman
whom Cato or Cicero could have recognized as his countryman." Chaucer made a translation of Boethius,
which was printed by Caxton. John Walton made a version in 1410, which was printed at a monastery in
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1525. Another early version made by George Coluile was published in 1556. Several others appeared in the
sixteenth century.]
Then said the Mind: This, methinks, must be the highest good, so that man should need no other good, nor
moreover be solicitous beyond that since he possesses that which is the roof of all other goods; for it includes
all other goods, and has all of them within it. It would not be the highest good if any good were external to it,
because it would then have to desire some good which itself had not.
Then answered Reason, and said: It is very evident that this is the highest happiness, for it is both the roof and
floor of all good. What is that, then, but the best happiness, which gathers the other felicities all within it, and
includes, and holds them within it; and to it there is a deficiency of none, neither has it need of any; but they
all come from it, and again all return to it; as all waters come from the sea, and again all come to the sea?
There is none in the little fountain which does not seek the sea, and again, from the sea it arrives at the earth,
and so it flows gradually through the earth, till it again comes to the same fountain that it before flowed from,
and so again to the sea.
Now this is an example of the true goods which all mortal men desire to obtain, tho they by various ways
think to arrive at them. For every man has natural good in himself, because every man desires to obtain the
true good; but it is hindered by the transitory goods, because it is more prone thereto. For some men think that
it is the best happiness that a man be so rich that he have need of nothing more; and they choose life
accordingly. Some men think that this is the highest good, that he be among his fellows the most honorable of
his fellows, and they with all energy seek this. Some think that the supreme good is in the highest power.
These desire, either for themselves to rule, or else to associate themselves in friendship with their rulers. Some
persuade themselves that it is the best that a man be illustrious and celebrated, and have good fame; they
therefore seek this both in peace and in war. Many reckon it for the greatest good and for the greatest
happiness, that a man be always blithe in this present life, and fulfil all his lusts. Some, indeed, who desire
these riches, are desirous thereof, because they would have the greater power, that they may the more securely
enjoy these worldly lusts, and also the riches. Many there are of those who desire power because they would
gather overmuch money; or, again, they are desirous to spread the celebrity of their name.
On account of such and other like frail and perishable advantages, the thought of every human mind is
troubled with solicitude and with anxiety. It then imagines that it has obtained some exalted goods when it has
won the flattery of the people; and methinks that it has bought a very false greatness. Some with much anxiety
seek wives, that thereby they may, above all things, have children, and also live happily. True friends, then, I
say, are the most precious things of all these worldly felicities. They are not, indeed, to be reckoned as
worldly goods, but as divine; for deceitful fortune does not produce them, but God, who naturally formed
them as relations. For of every other thing in this world man is desirous, either that he may through it attain to
power, or else some worldly lust; except of the true friend, whom he loves sometimes for affection and for
fidelity, tho he expect to himself no other rewards. Nature joins and cements friends together with inseparable
love. But with these worldly goods, and with this present wealth, men make oftener enemies than friends. By
these and by many such things it may be evident to all men that all the bodily goods are inferior to the
faculties of the soul.
We indeed think that a man is the stronger because he is great in his body. The fairness, moreover, and the
vigor of the body, rejoices and delights the man, and health makes him cheerful. In all these bodily felicities,
men seek simple happiness, as it seems to them. For whatsoever every man chiefly loves above all other
things, that he persuades himself is best for him, and that is his highest good. When, therefore, he has acquired
that, he imagines that he may be very happy. I do not deny that these goods and this happiness are the highest
good of this present life. For every man considers that thing best which he chiefly loves above other things;
and therefore he persuades himself that he is very happy if he can obtain what he then most desires. Is not now
clearly enough shown to thee the form of the false goods, that is, then, possessions, dignity, and power, and
glory, and pleasure? Concerning pleasure Epicurus the philosopher said, when he inquired concerning all
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those other goods which we before mentioned; then said he that pleasure was the highest good, because all the
other goods which we before mentioned gratify the mind and delight it, but pleasure alone chiefly gratifies the
body.
But we will still speak concerning the nature of men, and concerning their pursuits. Tho, then, their mind and
their nature be now dimmed, and they are by that fall sunk down to evil, and thither inclined, yet they are
desirous, so far as they can and may, of the highest good. As a drunken man knows that he should go to his
house and to his rest, and yet is not able to find the way thither, so is it also with the mind when it is weighed
down by the anxieties of this world. It is sometimes intoxicated and misled by them, so far that it can not
rightly find out good. Nor yet does it appear to those men that they at all err, who are desirous to obtain this,
that they need labor after nothing more. But they think that they are able to collect together all these goods, so
that none may be excluded from the number. They therefore know no other good than the collecting of all the
most precious things into their power that they may have need of nothing besides them. But there is no one
that has not need of some addition, except God alone. He has of His own enough, nor has He need of anything
but that which He has in Himself.
Dost thou think, however, that they foolishly imagine that that thing is best deserving of all estimation which
they may consider most desirable? No, no. I know that it is not to be despised. How can that be evil which the
mind of every man considers to be good, and strives after, and desires to obtain? No, it is not evil; it is the
highest good. Why is not power to be reckoned one of the highest goods of this present life? Is that to be
esteemed vain and useless which is the most useful of all those worldly things, that is, power? Is good fame
and renown to be accounted nothing? No, no. It is not fit that any one account it nothing; for every man thinks
that best which he most loves. Do we not know that no anxiety, or difficulties, or trouble, or pain, or sorrow,
is happiness? What more, then, need we say about these felicities? Does not every man know what they are,
and also know that they are the highest good? And yet almost every man seeks in very little things the best
felicities; because he thinks that he may have them all if he have that which he then chiefly wishes to obtain.
This is, then, what they chiefly wish to obtain, wealth, and dignity, and authority, and this world's glory, and
ostentation, and worldly lust. Of all this they are desirous because they think that, through these things, they
may obtain: that there be not to them a deficiency of anything wished; neither of dignity, nor of power, nor of
renown, nor of bliss. They wish for all this, and they do well that they desire it, tho they seek it variously. By
these things we may clearly perceive that every man is desirous of this, that, he may obtain the highest good,
if they were able to discover it, or knew how to seek it rightly. But they do not seek it in the most right way. It
is not of this world.
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
Born near Aquino, Italy, probably in 1225, died in 1274; entered the Dominican order; studied at Cologne
under Albertus Magnus; taught at Cologne, Paris, Rome and Bologna; his chief work the "Summa
Theologiæ"; his complete writings collected in 1787.
A DEFINITION OF HAPPINESS[3]
The word end has two meanings. In one meaning it stands for the thing itself which we desire to gain: thus the
miser's end is money. In another meaning it stands for the near attainment, or possession, or use, or enjoyment
of the thing desired, as if one should say that the possession of money is the miser's end, or the enjoyment of
something pleasant the end of the sensualist. In the first meaning of the word, therefore, the end of man is the
Uncreated Good, namely God, who alone of His infinite goodness can perfectly satisfy the will of man. But
according to the second meaning, the last end of man is something created, existing in himself, which is
nothing else than the attainment or enjoyment of the last end. Now the last end is called happiness. If therefore
the happiness of a man is considered in its cause or object, in that way it is something uncreated; but if it is
considered in essence, in that way happiness is a created thing.
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[Footnote 3: From the "Ethics." The complete works of Aquinas were published in 1787; but a new and
notable edition was compiled in 1883 under the intimate patronage of Pope Leo XIII, to whom is given credit
for a modern revival of interest in his writings.]
Happiness is said to be the sovereign good of man, because it is the attainment or enjoyment of the sovereign
good. So far as the happiness of man is something created, existing in the man himself, we must say that the
happiness of man is an act. For happiness is the last perfection of man. But everything is perfect so far as it is
in act; for potentiality without actuality is imperfect. Happiness, therefore, must consist in the last and
crowning act of man. But it is manifest that activity is the last and crowning act of an active being; whence
also it is called by the philosopher "the second act." And hence it is that each thing is said to be for the sake of
its activity. It needs must be therefore that the happiness of man is a certain activity.
Life has two meanings. One way it means the very being of the living, and in that way happiness is not life;
for of God alone can it be said that His own being is His happiness. In another way life is taken to mean the
activity on the part of the living thing by which activity the principle of life is reduced to act. Thus we speak
of an active or contemplative life, or of a life of pleasure; and in this way the last end is called life everlasting,
as is clear from the text: "This is life everlasting, that they know Thee, the only true God."
By the definition of Boethius, that happiness is "a state made perfect by the aggregate sum of all things good,"
nothing else is meant than that the happy man is in a state of perfect good. But Aristotle has exprest the proper
essence of happiness, showing by what it is that man is constituted in such a state, namely, by a certain
activity.
Action is two-fold. There is one variety that proceeds from the agent to exterior matter, as the action of cutting
and burning, and such an activity can not be happiness, for such activity is not an act and perfection of the
agent, but rather of the patient. There is another action immanent, or remaining in the agent himself, as
feeling, understanding, and willing. Such action is a perfection and act of the agent, and an activity of this sort
may possibly be happiness.
Since happiness means some manner of final perfection, happiness must have different meanings according to
the different grades of perfection that there are attainable by different beings capable of happiness. In God is
happiness by essence, because His very being is His activity, because He does not enjoy any other thing than
Himself. In the angels final perfection is by way of a certain activity, whereby they are united to the uncreated
good; and this activity is in them one and everlasting. In men, in the state of the present life, final perfection is
by way of an activity whereby they are united to God. But this activity can not be everlasting or continuous,
and by consequence it is not one, because an act is multiplied by interruption; and, therefore, in this state of
the present life, perfect happiness is not to be had by man.
Hence the philosopher, placing the happiness of man in this life, says that it is imperfect, and after much
discussion he comes to this conclusion: "We call them happy, so far as happiness can be predicated of men."
But we have a promise from God of perfect happiness, when we shall be "like the angels in heaven." As
regards this perfect happiness, the objection drops, because in this state of happiness the mind of man is united
to God by one continuous and everlasting activity. But in the present life, so far as we fall short of the unity
and continuity of such an activity, so much do we lose of the perfection of happiness. There is, however,
granted us a certain participation in happiness, and the more continuous and undivided the activity can be the
more will it come up to the idea of happiness. And therefore in the active life, which is busied with many
things, there is less of the essence of happiness than in the contemplative life, which is busy with the one
occupation of the contemplation of truth.
THOMAS À KEMPIS
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Born in Rhenish Prussia about 1380, died in the Netherlands in 1471; his real name Thomas Hammerken;
entered an Augustinian convent near Zwolle in 1407; became sub-prior of the convent in 1423 and again in
1447; generally accepted as the author of "The Imitation of Christ."
OF ETERNAL LIFE AND OF STRIVING FOR IT[4]
Son, when thou perceivest the desire of eternal bliss to be infused into thee from above, and thou wouldst fain
go out of the tabernacle of this body, that thou mightest contemplate My brightness without any shadow of
change enlarge thy heart, and receive this holy inspiration with thy whole desire.
[Footnote 4: From "The Imitation of Christ." Altho commonly ascribed to Thomas à Kempis, there has been
much controversy as to the real authorship of this famous work. Many early editions bear the name of
Thomas, including one of the year 1471, which is sometimes thought to be the first. As against his authorship
it is contended that he was a professional copyist, and that the use of his name in the first edition conformed to
a custom that belonged more to a transcriber than to an author. One of the earliest English versions of Thomas
à Kempis was made by Wyllyam Atkynson and printed by Wykyns de Worde in 1502. A translation by
Edward Hake appeared in 1567. Many other early English editions are known.]
Return the greatest thanks to the Supreme Goodness, which dealeth so condescendingly with thee, mercifully
visiteth thee, ardently inciteth thee, and powerfully raiseth thee up, lest by thy own weight thou fall down to
the things of earth.
For it is not by thy own thoughtfulness or endeavor that thou receivest this, but by the mere condescension of
heavenly grace and divine regard; that so thou mayest advance in virtues and greater humility, and prepare
thyself for future conflicts, and labor with the whole affection of thy heart to keep close to Me, and serve Me
with a fervent will.
Son, the fire often burneth, but the flame ascendeth not without smoke.
And so the desires of some are on fire after heavenly things, and yet they are not free from the temptation of
carnal affection.
Therefore is it not altogether purely for God's honor that they act, when they so earnestly petition Him.
Such also is oftentimes thy desire, which thou hast profest to be so importunate.
For that is not pure and perfect which, is alloyed with self-interest.
Ask not that which is pleasant and convenient, but that which is acceptable to Me and My honor; for if thou
judgest rightly, thou oughtest to prefer and to follow My appointment rather than thine own desire or any
other desirable thing.
I know thy desire, and I have often heard thy groanings.
Thou wouldst wish to be already in the liberty of the glory of the children of God.
Now doth the eternal dwelling, and the heavenly country full of festivity, delight thee.
But that hour is not yet come; for there is yet another time, a time of war, a time of labor and of probation.
Thou desirest to be filled with the Sovereign Good, but thou canst not at present attain to it.
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I am He: wait for Me, saith the Lord, until the kingdom of God come.
Thou hast yet to be tried upon earth and exercised in many things.
Consolation shall sometimes be given thee, but abundant satiety shall not be granted thee.
Take courage, therefore, and be valiant, as well in doing as in suffering things repugnant to nature.
Thou must put on the new man, and be changed into another person.
That which thou wouldst not, thou must oftentimes do; and that which thou wouldst, thou must leave undone.
What pleaseth others shall prosper, what is pleasing to thee shall not succeed.
What others say shall be harkened to; what thou sayest shall be reckoned as naught.
Others shall ask, and shall receive; thou shalt ask, and not obtain.
Others shall be great in the esteem of men; about thee nothing shall be said.
To others this or that shall be committed; but thou shalt be accounted as of no use.
At this nature will sometimes repine, and it will be a great matter if thou bear it with silence.
In these, and many such-like things, the faithful servant of the Lord is wont to be tried how far he can deny
and break himself in all things.
There is scarce anything in which thou standest so much in need of dying to thyself as in seeing and suffering
things that are contrary to thy will, and more especially when those things are commanded which seem to thee
inconvenient and of little use.
And because, being under authority, thou darest not resist the higher power, therefore it seemeth to thee hard
to walk at the beck of another, and wholly to give up thy own opinion.
But consider, son, the fruit of these labors, their speedy termination, and their reward exceeding great; and
thou wilt not hence derive affliction, but the most strengthening consolation in thy suffering.
For in regard to that little of thy will which thou now willingly forsakest, thou shalt forever have thy will in
heaven.
For there thou shalt find all that thou willest, all that thou canst desire.
There shall be to thee the possession of every good, without fear of losing it.
There thy will, always one with Me, shall not covet any extraneous or private thing. There no one shall resist
thee, no one complain of thee, no one obstruct thee, nothing shall stand in thy way; but every desirable good
shall be present at the same moment, shall replenish all thy affections and satiate them to the full.
There I will give thee glory for the contumely thou hast suffered; a garment of praise for thy sorrow; and for
having been seated here in the lowest place, the throne of My kingdom forever.
There will the fruit of obedience appear, there will the labor of penance rejoice, and humble subjection shall
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be gloriously crowned.
Now, therefore, bow thyself down humbly under the hands of all, and heed not who it was that said or
commanded this.
But let it be thy great care, that whether thy superior or inferior or equal require anything of thee, or hint at
anything, thou take all in good part, and labor with a sincere will to perform it.
Let one seek this, another that; let this man glory in this thing, another in that, and be praised a thousand
thousand times: but thou, for thy part, rejoice neither in this nor in that, but in the contempt of thyself, and in
My good pleasure and honor alone.
This is what thou hast to wish for, that whether in life or in death, God may be always glorified in thee.
FRANCE
TWELFTH CENTURY 1885
GEOFFREY DE VILLE-HARDOUIN
Born between 1150 and 1165, died in 1212; marshal of Champagne in 1191; joined the Crusade in 1199 under
Theobault III; negotiated successfully with Venice for the transfer of the Crusaders by sea to the Holy Land;
followed the Crusade and chronicled all its events from 1198 to 1207.
THE SACK OF CONSTANTINOPLE[5]
(1204)
This night passed and the day came which was Thursday morning (13 April, 1204), and then every one in the
camp armed themselves, the knights and the soldiers, and each one joined his battle corps. The Marquis of
Montferrat advanced toward the palace of Bucoleon; and having occupied it, determined to spare the lives of
all those he found therein. There were found there women of the highest rank, and of the most honorable
character; the sister of the King of France who had been an empress; and the sister of the King of Hungary,
and other women of quality. Of the treasure that there was in the palace, I can not speak; for there was so
much that it was without end or measure. Besides this palace which was surrendered to the Marquis Boniface
of Montferrat, that of Blachem was surrendered to Henry, brother of Count Baldwin of Flanders.
[Footnote 5: From the "Chronicles." This work is important; first, as a record, generally accepted as eminently
trustworthy, and second, for its literary excellence, in which sense it has been held in peculiar esteem. George
Saintsbury remarks that those chronicles "are by universal consent among the most attractive works of the
Middle Ages." They comprize one of the oldest extant examples of French prose. The passage here given was
translated for this collection from the old French by Eric Arthur Bell. A translation by T. Smith was published
in 1829.
This sack of Constantinople followed what is known as the Latin Conquest. More than thirty sieges of the city
have occurred. After the conquest here referred to Constantinople was occupied by the Latins. It was finally
wrested from them by Michael Palæologus. The conquest of 1204 was achieved during the Fourth Crusade.
By Latin Conquest is meant a conquest by Western Christians as against its long-time Greek rulers. This
conquest was also inspired by the commercial ambition of the Venetians, who had long coveted what were
believed to be the fabulous riches of the city. The Latin Empire survived for fifty-six years in a state of almost
constant weakness. The conquest had no direct relation to the original purpose of the Crusades, which was the
recovery of Jerusalem from the hands of the infidels.]
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